Cherokee Chief Stand Watie: The Legacy of A Native American Confederate General

Cherokee Chief Stand Watie, a prominent Cherokee leader and Confederate brigadier general, played a pivotal role during the American Civil War and in the history of the Cherokee Nation. As the only Native American to achieve the rank of general in the Confederate Army, Watie’s military leadership in key battles such as Pea Ridge and Cabin Creek demonstrated his tactical acumen. His involvement in the controversial Treaty of New Echota, which led to the forced removal of the Cherokee people on the Trail of Tears, and his stance as a slaveholder, further highlight the complexities of his legacy. This article delves into the life, military career, and historical significance of Stand Watie, examining both his contributions and the lasting impact on the Cherokee Nation.

Early Life and Family Background

Confederate Brigadier General and Cherokee Principal Chief Stand Watie was born on December 12, 1806, in the Cherokee Nation, in what is now present-day Calhoun, Georgia. His father, Uwatie, whose name translates to “the ancient one,” was a full-blooded Cherokee who became a prosperous planter. His mother, Susanna Reese, had a mixed heritage, being the daughter of a white father and Cherokee mother, giving Stand Watie a unique cultural background that he would carry throughout his life. Stand was not the only significant figure in his family—his brothers Gallagina (later known as Elias Boudinot) and Thomas Watie played pivotal roles in Cherokee history, especially regarding the divisive issue of relocation to Indian Territory.

The Watie family was close-knit, with a deep connection to their uncle Major Ridge and cousin John Ridge, both of whom would become prominent Cherokee leaders. Together, these men would form part of the “Treaty Party,” a faction that supported negotiating with the U.S. government to secure the Cherokee people’s rights amid the relentless push for removal from their ancestral lands.

The Treaty of New Echota and Its Consequences

The Treaty of New Echota, signed on December 29, 1835, became one of the most consequential agreements in Cherokee history, leading to the forced relocation of the Cherokee people known as the Trail of Tears. The treaty was negotiated and signed by a minority faction of the Cherokee, the Treaty Party, which included leaders such as Major Ridge, John Ridge, Elias Boudinot, and Stand Watie. Despite their intent to secure better terms for the inevitable relocation of their people, the treaty ultimately led to divisions within the Cherokee Nation and resulted in the tragic displacement of thousands of Native Americans.

Background: Pressure on the Cherokee

By the late 1820s, the Cherokee Nation controlled a significant territory in northwestern Georgia, with parts extending into Tennessee, Alabama, and North Carolina. At the time, the Cherokee population in these areas numbered around 16,000 people, with others having already moved west to present-day Texas and Arkansas. The U.S. government had long pursued a policy of Indian removal, and in 1826, the state of Georgia formally requested that the federal government negotiate a removal treaty with the Cherokee.

Initially, President John Quincy Adams resisted Georgia’s demands, as he supported the sovereignty of Native American nations. However, when Georgia threatened to nullify existing treaties, Adams was forced to consider negotiations. In 1828, Andrew Jackson, an outspoken advocate of Indian removal, was elected president, signaling a shift in U.S. policy.

Shortly after Jackson’s election, Georgia enacted laws aimed at dismantling Cherokee sovereignty and extending state law over their territory. The Cherokee were prohibited from holding governmental meetings, and white residents living among them—such as missionaries and those married to Cherokee citizens—were required to obtain state permits. The situation worsened after gold was discovered on Cherokee land in 1829, prompting an influx of white settlers eager to claim Cherokee territory. Georgia soon authorized a lottery to distribute Cherokee lands to white residents, further exacerbating tensions.

Cherokee Resistance and Divisions

The Cherokee, under the leadership of Principal Chief John Ross, resisted these encroachments. The Cherokee National Council, which represented the majority of the tribe, sought legal recourse by challenging Georgia’s laws in the U.S. courts. In 1832, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee in Worcester v. Georgia, declaring that only the federal government, not the states, had the authority to deal with Native American tribes. However, President Jackson refused to enforce the ruling, allowing Georgia to continue its aggressive actions against the Cherokee.

Faced with mounting pressure, the Cherokee leadership became divided over the best course of action. John Ross and the majority of the Cherokee Nation, known as the “National Party,” continued to resist removal and sought to lobby Congress for protection. Meanwhile, a minority faction, the “Treaty Party,” led by Major Ridge, John Ridge, Elias Boudinot, and Stand Watie, believed that removal was inevitable. This group favored negotiating a treaty with the U.S. government in hopes of securing the best possible terms for the Cherokee before relocation.

Negotiations and the Signing of the Treaty

Negotiations for the removal treaty were contentious, with the Treaty Party actively engaging with U.S. officials, while John Ross and his supporters denounced any such agreements. In December 1833, the Treaty Party officially formed, led by figures such as Major Ridge and John McIntosh. By 1835, a series of meetings culminated in the signing of the Treaty of New Echota at the Cherokee capital.

Under the terms of the treaty, the Cherokee Nation agreed to cede all its lands east of the Mississippi River to the U.S. government in exchange for $5 million, land in Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma), and compensation for lost property. The treaty also included provisions for Cherokee who wished to remain in the east to do so, though this clause was later removed by President Jackson.

The treaty was signed by representatives of the Treaty Party, including Major Ridge, Elias Boudinot, Stand Watie, and others. However, the majority of the Cherokee, including John Ross, were not present at the signing and vehemently opposed the agreement. Ross, along with most of the Cherokee Nation, rejected the treaty, arguing that it was not legally valid because it had not been approved by the Cherokee National Council. Despite these objections, the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in May 1836 by a narrow margin.

Aftermath and the Trail of Tears

Following the ratification of the Treaty of New Echota, John Ross and his followers continued to protest the agreement, collecting nearly 16,000 signatures on a petition urging Congress to void the treaty. Despite this overwhelming show of opposition, the U.S. government proceeded with its plan to remove the Cherokee from their homeland.

In 1838, under the orders of President Martin Van Buren, U.S. troops, led by General Winfield Scott, began forcibly removing Cherokee who had not voluntarily relocated to Indian Territory. This forced migration, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in the deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokee due to disease, starvation, and exposure during the long and brutal journey west.

Divisions Within the Cherokee Nation

The signing of the Treaty of New Echota not only led to the physical removal of the Cherokee people but also ignited a fierce internal conflict within the tribe. The Treaty Party, which had advocated for removal, was viewed by many as traitors who had sold out their people for personal gain. In 1839, a group of Cherokee loyal to John Ross carried out a series of assassinations targeting members of the Treaty Party. Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot were all killed in retribution for their roles in the treaty. Stand Watie, however, survived the assassination attempt and continued to play a significant role in Cherokee politics.

The violence sparked by the Treaty of New Echota marked the beginning of a bitter civil war within the Cherokee Nation, a conflict that would continue well into the American Civil War.

Slaveholding and Property

Stand Watie was not just a political figure but also a wealthy landowner and slaveholder. Like many Cherokee elites of his time, Watie embraced the Southern plantation system, which included the use of enslaved African Americans. Watie’s properties were vast, and he accumulated wealth through both agriculture and livestock. His plantation in Indian Territory was run similarly to those in the Southern states, complete with large-scale farming operations and the forced labor of enslaved individuals. Although less than ten percent of Cherokee owned slaves, Watie’s involvement in this institution is a critical aspect of understanding his ties to the Confederacy and his social status.

Watie’s economic interests, particularly his ownership of slaves, aligned him closely with Southern Confederate sympathies during the American Civil War. This alliance would prove pivotal in the choices he made during the conflict.

Cherokee Chief Stand Watie: The Civil War and the Native American/Confederate Alliance

The American Civil War drastically altered the trajectory of Watie’s life and the Cherokee Nation. At the onset of the war, the Cherokee Nation, under Principal Chief John Ross, initially allied with the Confederacy to avoid internal division. However, after the war progressed and Ross realized the Confederacy was struggling, he shifted his loyalty to the Union and fled with his followers to Kansas.

In Ross’s absence, Stand Watie assumed leadership of the pro-Confederate faction of the Cherokee Nation and was elected as the new principal chief. Watie’s military acumen earned him the rank of brigadier-general in the Confederate Army, making him the only Native American to achieve such a high rank on either side of the conflict.

The Battle of Pea Ridge: Stand Watie and the Native American Role

The Battle of Pea Ridge, fought on March 7-8, 1862, was a key conflict in the Civil War’s Western Theater, securing Union control over Missouri and northern Arkansas. While Union forces under Brigadier General Samuel Curtis faced off against a numerically superior Confederate force led by Major General Earl Van Dorn, the battle also showcased the involvement of Native American soldiers, notably the Cherokee troops commanded by Stand Watie.

As Union forces pushed the Confederates southward into Arkansas, Major General Van Dorn, determined to reclaim Missouri, led a force of around 16,000 men, including about 800 Native American soldiers from various tribes, to outflank Curtis’s army. Among these Native soldiers was Stand Watie, leading a regiment of Cherokee cavalry. Van Dorn’s army moved swiftly in harsh winter conditions, hoping to surprise and cut off Curtis’s supply lines.

 On March 7, the Confederate forces split into two wings, with one, under McCulloch’s command, moving toward Leetown, where Stand Watie and his Cherokee troops saw action. Watie’s regiment fought alongside other Confederate units in an attempt to outflank the Union forces. Despite initial success, the Confederate forces faltered after the deaths of their key commanders, Generals Ben McCulloch and James McIntosh. The death of these leaders left Watie and the other troops without direction, leading to a Confederate retreat from Leetown.

Watie’s Cherokee regiment, along with other Native American forces, played a critical role in the battle’s early stages. However, the Native American troops’ involvement became controversial due to reports that some had scalped and mutilated wounded Union soldiers. This event stained the reputation of Native forces, particularly Watie’s Cherokee, and sparked outrage among Union ranks.

 On the second day of the battle, March 8, Union forces, now fortified and with artillery under Brigadier General Franz Sigel, bombarded Confederate positions. With supply lines cut and ammunition depleted, Van Dorn was forced to retreat. Despite his efforts and the contributions of Watie’s Native American troops, the Confederates could not hold their ground.

Though the Confederates were defeated, Stand Watie’s leadership during the Battle of Pea Ridge demonstrated his tactical skill and commitment to the Southern cause. His participation marked one of the most significant contributions by a Native American commander in the Civil War. Watie continued to lead his Cherokee troops in guerrilla warfare throughout the conflict, becoming one of the most prominent Native American leaders in the Confederate Army.

Stand Watie’s Capture of the J.R. Williams

Stand Watie’s tactical prowess was further demonstrated in his later campaigns, particularly his ambush of the Union steamboat J.R. Williams on July 16, 1864. Watie and his men intercepted the steamboat on the Arkansas River, seizing much-needed supplies for the Confederacy. The success of this raid boosted Confederate morale and showcased Watie’s ability to conduct guerrilla-style warfare effectively.

The Battles of Cabin Creek: Native American Involvement

The Battles of Cabin Creek, both the first and second engagements, were significant events during the Civil War that highlighted the contributions of Native American soldiers, particularly those under the command of Stand Watie. Watie played a key role in these battles, working alongside both Native and Texan forces to disrupt Union supply lines in Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma).

First Battle of Cabin Creek

The First Battle of Cabin Creek, fought in July 1863, set the stage for the second and more decisive engagement. During the first battle, Watie’s Confederate forces, including his Cherokee troops, attempted to seize a Union supply train crossing Cabin Creek, an essential route for delivering supplies to Union forces at Fort Gibson. Though Watie’s attack was well-coordinated, his efforts were ultimately thwarted by Union forces, reinforced by Native American troops loyal to the Union, including the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry and Cherokee regiments.

The presence of Native Americans on both sides reflected the deep divisions within tribes like the Cherokee, where allegiances were split between the Union and the Confederacy. Despite the Confederate defeat, Watie’s determination to continue harassing Union supply lines in Indian Territory set the stage for his next major operation: the Second Battle of Cabin Creek.

Prelude to the Second Battle of Cabin Creek

By September 1864, Watie devised a bold plan to raid Union supply trains in Indian Territory and weaken their hold over the region. Watie collaborated with Brigadier General Richard Gano, a commander of Texas cavalry units, to launch a surprise attack on a Union wagon train carrying supplies intended for Native American refugees near Fort Gibson.

Tensions between the Texan and Native American forces under Watie were apparent, as many Texans harbored deep-seated resentment toward Native Americans, including their Cherokee allies. To avoid internal conflict, Watie deferred command of the expedition to Gano, despite his senior rank in the Indian Brigade. This act of solidarity allowed the two forces to unite against a common enemy, with Watie leading his 800-strong Indian Brigade and Gano commanding around 1,200 Texans.

The target of their raid was a Union wagon train escorted by a mix of Union cavalry and pro-Union Cherokee soldiers. As they prepared for the attack, the Confederate forces encountered a group of black Union soldiers near Flat Rock Creek on September 16. The Confederates overwhelmed the Union troops, killing many, including some black soldiers who were reportedly executed after the battle. This action became one of the more infamous moments of Watie’s military career, drawing criticism for its brutality.

The Second Battle of Cabin Creek

The main assault began early in the morning of September 19, 1864. Watie and Gano’s forces launched a coordinated attack on the Union positions at Cabin Creek. Watie’s Indian Brigade attacked from the right flank while Gano’s Texans advanced on the left. The Confederate artillery barrage caused panic among the Union forces, particularly the mule teams pulling the wagons. Many mules, terrified by the explosions, ran wild, dragging wagons into the creek or breaking free from their harnesses.

As dawn broke, the Union forces found themselves in a precarious position. Gano moved artillery to create a devastating crossfire on the Union troops and their wagons. Watie’s Cherokee soldiers crossed the creek and began capturing the abandoned wagons. By mid-morning, the Union defense had collapsed, and Major Hopkins, the Union commander, fled the battlefield in a desperate attempt to regroup at Fort Gibson. The Confederates seized control of the wagon train, capturing an estimated $1 million worth of supplies, including 130 wagons and 740 mules.

Aftermath and Impact

The Second Battle of Cabin Creek was a significant victory for Stand Watie and the Confederates in Indian Territory. The capture of the wagon train provided much-needed supplies to the Confederate forces and dealt a severe blow to the Union’s logistical operations in the region. Watie and Gano received praise from Confederate leadership, including President Jefferson Davis, for their successful raid.

However, despite the tactical success, the battle had little long-term effect on the overall war effort in Indian Territory. By this point in the war, the Confederacy was in decline, and Union forces maintained their strategic advantage in the region. Nonetheless, the Second Battle of Cabin Creek remains one of Stand Watie’s most notable military achievements, showcasing his leadership and the vital role Native Americans played in the Civil War.

Later Career and Life

In 1865, after the Confederate surrender, Watie traveled to Washington, D.C., as part of the Southern Cherokee delegation to negotiate with the U.S. government. He sought to protect the interests of those Cherokee who had supported the Confederacy, but the federal government preferred to deal with the Union-aligned faction led by John Ross. The post-war treaty negotiations required the Cherokee to abolish slavery and offer full citizenship to freedmen, further fueling tensions within the tribe.

In the aftermath of the war, Watie retreated from public life, focusing on rebuilding his plantation and attempting to recover from the economic devastation caused by the conflict. His family had also suffered tremendously—Watie and his wife, Sarah Caroline Bell, had lost two of their sons, Saladin and Solon, shortly after the war. These personal losses weighed heavily on him, contributing to his desire to live quietly.

Watie spent his final years at his home on Honey Creek in the Cherokee Nation, present-day Delaware County, Oklahoma. He died on September 9, 1871, at the age of 64. Watie was buried in the old Ridge Cemetery, which is now known as Polson Cemetery, in Delaware County, Oklahoma. This cemetery holds many members of the Ridge and Watie families, linking him forever to the legacy of the Treaty Party and their controversial decisions that shaped Cherokee history.

After his death, Watie’s remaining family members, including his wife Sarah and surviving children, faced continued struggles in a Cherokee Nation divided by post-war political conflicts and the complications arising from the integration of freedmen into the tribe.

Legacy and Historical Significance

Stand Watie’s legacy is complex and multifaceted. As the only Native American to serve as a brigadier-general in the Confederate Army, he occupies a unique place in American Civil War history. His leadership during key battles, such as Pea Ridge and Cabin Creek, demonstrated his military prowess, while his decision to align with the Confederacy reflected the deep divisions within the Cherokee Nation over slavery and sovereignty.

Watie’s involvement in the Treaty of New Echota and the subsequent violence that followed it cemented his role as a polarizing figure within the Cherokee Nation. To some, he was a pragmatist who believed that removal was inevitable and sought to protect the Cherokee people through negotiation. To others, he was a traitor who betrayed the Cherokee Nation for personal gain.

Despite the controversy surrounding his actions, Stand Watie’s impact on both Cherokee and American history is undeniable. His leadership during the Civil War, his role in the Treaty of New Echota, and his efforts to rebuild the Cherokee Nation in the aftermath of the war all contributed to shaping the future of the Cherokee people and their relationship with the U.S. government.

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