Cherokee Chief John Ross: The Complex Legacy of a Native American Slaveholder

Cherokee Chief John Ross, one of the most significant figures in Cherokee history, is a man of immense complexity. Serving as the Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation for nearly 40 years, Ross played a critical role in leading the Cherokee through some of the most challenging periods in their history, including the Trail of Tears and the American Civil War. However, one aspect of his legacy that is often overlooked is his involvement in the institution of slavery. This article delves deep into John Ross’s life, exploring his role as a Native American leader and slaveholder while addressing the broader historical context of Native American involvement in slavery.

A Brief History of the Cherokee Tribe

The Cherokee are one of the largest Native American tribes in the southeastern United States, with their ancestral homeland stretching across modern-day Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama. Historically, the Cherokee were an agrarian society that practiced agriculture, hunting, and trade. They were known for their strong clan system. Cherokee society was also highly organized, with a council of chiefs representing different towns and regions, and their culture was rich with oral traditions, religious ceremonies, and a deep connection to the natural world. By the 18th century, the Cherokee had established relationships with European settlers and began to engage in trade, diplomacy, and warfare with the British, French, and Spanish. However, as white settlers expanded westward, tensions grew, and the Cherokee found themselves increasingly pressured to cede their lands.

By the late 18^th century, the Cherokee had already experienced a significant period of upheaval and adaptation. The tribe had faced devastating wars and the signing of multiple treaties with European powers, which often resulted in the loss of their lands. During the late 18th century, many Cherokee leaders recognized the need to adopt European-style agriculture, commerce, and diplomacy to survive the growing pressures from white settlers. This period marked the beginning of a significant transformation for the Cherokee Nation, as they increasingly incorporated European cultural practices, including the ownership of African slaves and the establishment of formal governments. Despite these changes, the Cherokee were determined to retain their sovereignty and control over their remaining lands. It was during this time of cultural adaptation and political struggle that John Ross was born, and his mixed heritage and education in both European and Cherokee customs positioned him to play a pivotal role in the future of his people.

When John Ross was born in 1790 in Turkeytown, Alabama, Cherokee society operated under a matrilineal system, where lineage, clan membership, and social identity were inherited through the mother’s line. This meant that Cherokee women played a crucial role in determining the heritage and societal standing of their children. John Ross’s mother, Mary McDonald, was of mixed Cherokee and European ancestry, belonging to the Bird Clan of the Cherokee Nation. His father, Daniel Ross, was a Scottish immigrant who had settled among the Cherokee after moving to America during the Revolutionary War. Despite being only one-eighth Cherokee by blood, John Ross’s connection to his mother’s clan ensured that he was fully accepted within the Cherokee community and afforded all the rights and privileges of a Cherokee citizen.

Daniel Ross, though Scottish by birth, became deeply integrated into Cherokee society, working as a trader and gaining the trust of local leaders. His marriage to Mary McDonald further solidified his standing within the Cherokee Nation. John Ross benefited from his parents’ backgrounds—his father’s European education and business acumen, and his mother’s Cherokee heritage and influence.

John Ross received a strong early education that was unusual for many Cherokee of his time. He attended several English-speaking schools, including a prestigious academy in Kingston, Tennessee. His father ensured that John received a Western-style education. Raised in a bilingual and bicultural environment, John was fluent in both English and Cherokee, a rare and valuable skill at the time. His understanding of both cultures allowed him to navigate between the Cherokee world and that of European settlers, which would later prove essential in his rise to leadership.

John Ross’s Early Career and Path to Cherokee Chief

Ross began his career as an Indian agent in 1811, at the age of 21, placing him at the forefront of U.S. government relations with the Cherokee and other Native American tribes. In this role, Ross acted as a mediator between the Cherokee Nation and the federal government, gaining critical experience in diplomacy, negotiation, and tribal affairs. During the War of 1812, Ross joined the U.S. Army and fought alongside Cherokee forces under General Andrew Jackson against the British-allied Creek Nation, particularly in the Creek War. Ross played a pivotal role in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, where the combined Cherokee and American forces achieved a decisive victory over the Red Stick faction of the Creek Nation. His efforts during the war earned him recognition both within the Cherokee Nation and among U.S. military leaders, including Andrew Jackson. However, their relationship would later become fraught as Jackson pushed for the removal of Native Americans.

After his service as an Indian agent and involvement in the War of 1812, John Ross began to establish himself as a successful businessman and plantation owner. In the early 1820s, he started a plantation near Head of Coosa (modern-day Rome, Georgia), where he grew crops such as cotton using enslaved African laborers, following the plantation economy model that many wealthy Cherokee had adopted. Alongside his agricultural pursuits, Ross expanded his business by building a warehouse and trading post along the Tennessee River, near what is now Chattanooga, Tennessee. This area, originally known by the Cherokee as “Tsatanugi,” meaning “rock rising to a point,” after the nearby Lookout Mountain, would later become known as Chattanooga. Ross’s trading post became a crucial hub for Cherokee commerce, facilitating trade between the Cherokee Nation and European-American settlers, dealing in cotton, deerskins, and other goods.

Ross’s prominence in Cherokee society grew, and in 1816, he made his first trip to Washington, D.C., as part of a Cherokee delegation. This visit, intended to negotiate with the U.S. government over Cherokee land rights, marked Ross’s initial foray into the complex world of federal politics. During this trip, Ross’s eloquence and diplomacy impressed U.S. officials, helping him build a reputation as a capable and effective leader. The delegation’s goal was to protest U.S. encroachments on Cherokee lands and to secure promises from the government to honor existing treaties. Although the U.S. government made assurances, Ross returned with a deeper understanding of the need for a stronger political strategy to resist future land seizures. This experience solidified his interest in Cherokee politics, and by the mid-1820s, he had become a central figure in the tribe’s efforts to defend their sovereignty.

John Ross and the Cherokee Nation: A Visionary Leader

In 1828, John Ross was elected as the Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, a position he held until his death in 1866. Under Ross’s leadership, the Cherokee Nation underwent significant political and cultural transformations. He was instrumental in helping the Cherokee adopt a written constitution in 1827, modeled after the U.S. Constitution, which formalized their government structure. Ross believed that by adopting aspects of American governance and society, the Cherokee could assert their sovereignty and protect their lands from encroaching white settlers.

Ross was a staunch advocate for Cherokee sovereignty, and his leadership was tested during the rise of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This legislation, championed by President Andrew Jackson, aimed to relocate Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated territories west of the Mississippi River.

The relationship between John Ross and Andrew Jackson became increasingly strained during the negotiations over the removal of Native Americans, particularly the Cherokee. Early on, during the War of 1812, Ross and Jackson had fought on the same side against the British-allied Creek Nation, and Jackson initially respected Ross as a capable leader. However, by the late 1820s and early 1830s, Jackson’s policy of Indian removal created deep conflict between the two. As President, Jackson aggressively pursued the relocation of Native American tribes, including the Cherokee, to lands west of the Mississippi River. Ross, as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, fiercely opposed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and fought to protect Cherokee sovereignty through legal channels taking the case of Cherokee land rights all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court in the famous case Worcester v. Georgia (1832). Despite a Supreme Court ruling in favor of the Cherokee, Jackson famously refused to enforce the decision, stating, “John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it.” This defiance marked the breaking point in their relationship, as Ross continued to resist removal while Jackson relentlessly pushed for it, culminating in the forced relocation known as the Trail of Tears.

The Trail of Tears: A Heartbreaking Chapter

The Trail of Tears was a devastating ordeal for John Ross and his family, as it was for the entire Cherokee Nation. Although Ross led the legal and political efforts to resist removal, once it became inevitable, he had no choice but to accompany his people on the forced march to Indian Territory. Despite his position as Principal Chief, Ross did not receive special treatment during the removal. In fact, he traveled with the majority of his tribesmen, experiencing firsthand the hardships of the grueling journey. His wife, Quatie Ross, fell ill during the march and tragically died before reaching their new home. Her death was a significant personal blow to Ross, adding to the emotional and physical toll of the removal. The loss of his wife, along with the thousands of Cherokee who perished along the way, deeply impacted Ross, further cementing his resolve to seek justice for his people in their new land.

Once they arrived in Indian Territory, Ross and his family settled near what is now Tahlequah, Oklahoma, the new capital of the Cherokee Nation. Despite the trauma of the removal, Ross worked to rebuild the Cherokee Nation and create a stable community in the unfamiliar territory. Like other prominent Cherokee, Ross had brought his enslaved Africans with him to Indian Territory and continued to operate his plantation. His leadership position and wealth afforded him land and resources, allowing him to live a relatively comfortable life in comparison to many of his tribesmen who struggled to adapt. Ross owned several hundred acres of land, where he and his family grew crops and managed their affairs with the help of enslaved laborers. Although his personal circumstances may have improved, the pain of the forced removal and the loss of life along the Trail of Tears haunted Ross for the rest of his days. His wealth and status in Indian Territory did not alleviate the immense responsibility he felt toward his people, and he spent the remainder of his life fighting to protect their rights and rebuild their shattered society.

The Complex Role of Native American Slaveholders

The history of Native Americans and slavery is often overshadowed by the more prominent narrative of African American enslavement in the United States. However, slavery was not foreign to Native American tribes, including the Cherokee. Before European contact, many Native tribes practiced forms of slavery that involved capturing and assimilating individuals from rival tribes. With the arrival of European colonists, this system evolved to mirror the European institution of chattel slavery, particularly in the Southern states, where agriculture relied heavily on enslaved labor.

By the early 19th century, the Cherokee Nation had adopted several aspects of European-American culture, including plantation agriculture and slavery. Some of the wealthier Cherokee, including John Ross, owned African slaves to work on their farms and plantations. Slaveholding within the Cherokee community was seen as a symbol of wealth and social status, just as it was among white Southern planters. Ross’s participation in this institution complicates his legacy as a leader who fought for the rights of an oppressed people.

By the 1820s, the Cherokee Nation had developed a plantation-based economy, relying heavily on enslaved Africans to cultivate crops like cotton. Ross himself owned slaves to manage his plantation near Head of Coosa (modern-day Rome, Georgia), where he grew crops for both subsistence and trade.

The Role of Slavery in Cherokee Society

By the mid-19th century, about 10% of Cherokee households owned slaves, a percentage comparable to that of white slaveholders in the southern United States. The relationship between Cherokee slaveholders and their slaves was not significantly different from that of their white counterparts. Cherokee slaveholders subjected their slaves to harsh working conditions, long hours, and, in many cases, physical punishment. Slaves had no legal rights and were treated as property. The wealthiest Cherokee, including John Ross, saw the ownership of slaves as a means to establish themselves as powerful landowners and to mimic the wealth and status of their white neighbors.

In 1846, when the Cherokee Nation relocated westward to Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma), the institution of slavery followed. Despite the physical and cultural upheaval caused by the relocation, slavery remained entrenched within the Cherokee economy and society. Ross, as Principal Chief, did not publicly advocate for the abolition of slavery within the Cherokee Nation during this time.

 John Ross and the Civil War: A Divided Cherokee Nation

The onset of the American Civil War further complicated John Ross’s position as a leader and as a slaveholder. The Cherokee Nation was deeply divided during the war, with many supporting the Union and others siding with the Confederacy. Ross initially tried to keep the Cherokee Nation neutral, understanding that involvement in the war could have devastating consequences. However, as the war progressed, neutrality became an increasingly untenable position.

In 1861, Ross reluctantly signed a treaty with the Confederacy, aligning the Cherokee Nation with the Southern cause. Many Cherokee slaveholders supported this decision, as the Confederacy promised to uphold their right to own slaves. However, a significant portion of the Cherokee, including those who did not own slaves, opposed this alliance and supported the Union. These internal divisions ultimately led to a Cherokee civil war, with factions within the tribe fighting on both sides of the larger conflict.

Ross’s decision to ally with the Confederacy has been a subject of much debate among historians. Some argue that it was a pragmatic choice, given the Confederacy’s proximity and the economic interests of the Cherokee elite. Others contend that it was a moral failure, as the Confederacy fought to preserve an institution that directly contradicted Ross’s previous advocacy for the rights of oppressed peoples.

 John Ross and the Union: A Change of Heart

As the Civil War progressed, John Ross’s alliance with the Confederacy became increasingly strained. By 1862, after the Confederate defeat at Pea Ridge, Ross was captured by Union forces and taken to Washington, D.C. While in Union custody, Ross formally shifted his allegiance to the Union, recognizing that the Confederacy was unlikely to win the war.

Despite his earlier alliance with the Confederacy, Ross worked with Union officials to secure aid for the Cherokee people, many of whom had been devastated by the war. His change of heart allowed the Cherokee Nation to be on the winning side of the war, but the damage caused by the internal divisions would have lasting consequences.

 The Abolition of Slavery in the Cherokee Nation

After the Civil War ended in 1865, slavery was formally abolished in the United States, and the Cherokee Nation was required to follow suit. In 1866, the U.S. government forced the Cherokee to sign a new treaty that not only ended slavery but also granted full citizenship rights to the Cherokee Freedmen, the formerly enslaved people of African descent who had lived within the Cherokee Nation. This was a significant development, as it extended political and legal rights to the Freedmen, including the right to vote and hold office.

For John Ross, who had owned slaves throughout much of his life, this was a dramatic shift. The institution of slavery had been deeply entrenched in Cherokee society for decades, and its abolition represented a profound change in the social and economic structure of the nation.

 The Legacy of the Cherokee Freedmen

The question of the status of the Cherokee Freedmen has remained a contentious issue within the Cherokee Nation long after the abolition of slavery. The 1866 treaty promised full citizenship to the Freedmen and their descendants, but over the years, this promise was often undermined. In the late 20th century, the Cherokee Nation began to revoke the citizenship of many Freedmen, arguing that they were not “Cherokee by blood.”

This led to a long legal battle, with the Freedmen arguing that they were entitled to citizenship under the terms of the 1866 treaty. In 2017, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Freedmen, affirming their right to full citizenship within the Cherokee Nation. This ruling was a significant victory for the Freedmen and marked an important moment in the ongoing struggle for civil rights within the Cherokee community.

The Final Years of John Ross’s Life

In the final years of John Ross’s life, he continued to serve as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, despite the immense challenges brought on by the Civil War and the lasting trauma of the Trail of Tears. Ross remained a staunch advocate for his people until his death on August 1, 1866, in Washington, D.C., where he had been lobbying for Cherokee rights. His body was transported back to Indian Territory, where he was buried in Park Hill Cemetery near Tahlequah, Oklahoma.

After his death, the Cherokee Nation faced significant political and social upheaval. The Civil War had divided the tribe, with factions supporting both the Union and Confederacy, leaving the Nation fractured. Ross’s son, Allen Ross, did not assume leadership, and the role of Principal Chief eventually passed to Lewis Downing, who sought to heal the divisions within the Cherokee Nation and lead efforts to rebuild. The Cherokee continued to face challenges from the U.S. government, particularly during the Reconstruction era, as they navigated new treaties and the integration of freed slaves into the Nation. Ross’s descendants, along with other Cherokee families, worked to preserve their heritage, though the tribe’s autonomy would be further eroded in the years following his death.

John Ross’s Legacy in American History

John Ross’s life and legacy are emblematic of the complexities of American history. As a leader of the Cherokee Nation, he fought for the survival of his people in the face of overwhelming odds, leading them through the Trail of Tears and navigating the turbulent waters of the American Civil War. Yet, his participation in the institution of slavery adds a layer of moral ambiguity to his story.

Ross’s legacy forces us to confront the uncomfortable truths about the history of Native American slaveholding and the broader legacy of slavery in America. His life serves as a reminder that even those who fight for justice and equality can be complicit in systems of oppression. As we continue to grapple with the legacies of slavery and the treatment of Indigenous peoples, John Ross’s story remains a vital part of the conversation.

 

Watch our documentary “In Search of Bass Reeves” for more on Black pioneers of the Old West.